Language policy in US education has often oscillated between suppression and revitalization. Historically, many minority languages were sidelined to assimilate diverse groups into a monolingual society. From Native American languages to those spoken by immigrants, this practice has left a lasting impact on cultural identity.
This is a brief historical overview:
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Colonial to Early 20th Century: Initially, multilingual education was common as immigrants taught their children in their native languages. However, by the late 19th and early 20th centuries, there was a strong push for English-only education, often enforced through laws and school policies aimed at assimilation.
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Post-WWII to 1960s: The Civil Rights Movement and increased awareness of educational equity led to a gradual shift. The Bilingual Education Act of 1968 was a landmark, providing federal funding for programs teaching in languages other than English.
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1970s-1980s: The Lau v. Nichols Supreme Court decision in 1974 mandated that schools provide language support for non-English speaking students, further promoting bilingual education.
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1990s and Beyond: A backlash against bilingual education led to policies like California's Proposition 227 in 1998, promoting English immersion. However, this was later moderated by Proposition 58 in 2016, which reopened the door for multilingual education.
- The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 replaced the Bilingual Education Act with the English Language Acquisition Act, shifting focus towards English proficiency.
Throughout the years, different types of programs have been offered to cater different needs, policy preferences and goals. These are the broad categories of multilingual education programs today in the United States:
1.
Indigenous Language Immersion Programs
Full instruction in indigenous languages with cultural integration and traditional knowledge systems. Examples include Kaiapuni Schools (Hawaiian), Navajo (Diné) immersion programs, and Yup'ik programs in Alaska. Focus on language revitalization and cultural preservation alongside academic achievement. The Hawaiian Language Immersion program is the most important example of indigenous language education in the U.S. due to its scale, legal backing, cultural significance, and integration into the state's educational framework.
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Two-Way/Dual Language ProgramsEqual instruction in two languages (typically 50/50 or 90/10 models), serving both native English speakers and speakers of the target language. Most common in Spanish-English contexts, but also exists for Chinese-English, Korean-English, and some indigenous languages. Examples include Spanish immersion programs in California and Puente de Hózhǫ́ (Navajo/English) in Arizona.
3.
Transitional Bilingual Education
Initially provides substantial instruction in students' native language while gradually transitioning to English-only instruction. Common for Spanish-speaking students, with programs typically lasting 2-4 years. Goal is English proficiency while maintaining academic progress in content areas.
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Heritage Language ProgramsLanguage instruction for students with cultural connections to the language, either through family background or community ties. Includes both indigenous languages (like Lakota or Cherokee) and immigrant languages (like Korean or Arabic). Often offered as supplementary programs or within regular school curriculum.
5. ESL/Structured English Immersion
Primarily English instruction with specialized support for non-native speakers. May include pull-out programs where students receive targeted English instruction. Common in schools with diverse language populations or in states with restrictive language policies.
Let's see some examples of states with particular multilingual education policies.
California:
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Dual Language Immersion (DLI): California has one of the highest numbers of DLI programs in the U.S., where students learn in both English and another language, often Spanish. These programs aim for students to become bilingual, biliterate, and bicultural. They can follow a 90:10 or 50:50 model, where the percentage refers to the initial language instruction split in kindergarten, gradually balancing out by later grades.
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Historical Context: After Proposition 227 aimed to limit bilingual education, Proposition 58 reversed much of this, allowing schools greater flexibility to implement multilingual education.
Hawaii:
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Hawaiian Language Immersion: Known as Kaiapuni schools, these programs provide education primarily in ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi, aiming to revive the language and culture. Students might not start learning English formally until later grades, following a model where 90% of instruction is in Hawaiian.
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Cultural Restoration: This is not just about language but about restoring cultural practices and identity, which were suppressed for decades. These programs enjoy robust institutional and community backing, with active promotion and oversight by the Office of Hawaiian Education.
New York:
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Two-Way Bilingual Education: New York City has numerous two-way immersion programs where both English and non-English speakers learn together, promoting bilingualism for all students.
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Challenges: Despite the success of these programs, resource allocation and teacher shortages remain significant challenges.
Texas:
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Bilingual Education Mandates: Texas has long-standing laws requiring bilingual education for English Learners, with programs often focusing on Spanish due to the state's demographics. Schools implement both Transitional Bilingual Education (TBE) and Dual Language programs, with the latter aiming for long-term bilingualism.
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Program Models: Schools might offer early-exit, where students transition to English-only after a few years, or more sustained dual language programs.
Utah:
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Utah Dual Language Immersion: Since 2008, Utah has aggressively expanded its dual language immersion programs, focusing on languages like Spanish, Chinese, French, and German. The state's model often starts at 50:50, with equal time spent in English and the target language.
The landscape of multilingual education in the United States reflects both historical struggles and contemporary progress. While past policies often aimed at linguistic assimilation, today's diverse approaches acknowledge the value of multilingualism in education. From indigenous language revitalization to immigrant language support, these programs serve multiple purposes:
- Cultural preservation and identity affirmation
- Academic achievement in multiple languages
- Economic and social advantages of multilingualism
- Community engagement and cross-cultural understanding
However, challenges remain, including:
- Securing sustainable funding
- Training and retaining qualified teachers
- Developing appropriate materials and assessment tools
- Navigating varying state policies and requirements
As the United States becomes increasingly diverse, the future of multilingual education will likely continue to evolve. More rigorous empirical evaluation of these programs, on many dimensions - educational, economic, sociological, and psychological - is needed to identify the best practices navigating these complex trade-offs.
